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Windover Archeological Site

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Windover Archeological Site
Image
Windover Archeological Site is located in Florida
Windover Archeological Site
Location within Florida
Windover Archeological Site is located in the United States
Windover Archeological Site
Location within the United States
LocationBrevard County, Florida
Nearest cityTitusville[1]
Coordinates28°32′25″N 80°50′35″W / 28.54028°N 80.84306°W / 28.54028; -80.84306
Area1.3 acres (0.53 ha)
NRHP reference No.87000810[2]
Significant dates
Added to NRHPApril 20, 1987[2]
Designated NHLMay 28, 1987[1]

The Windover Archeological Site is a Middle Archaic (8000 to 1000 BC) archaeological site and National Historic Landmark in Brevard County near Titusville, Florida, United States on the central east coast of the state. Windover is a muck pond where skeletal remains of at least 168 individuals were found buried in the peat at the bottom of the pond. The skeletons were well preserved because of the peat. In addition, remarkably well-preserved brain tissue has been recovered from 91 skulls from the site. DNA from the brain tissue has been sequenced. The collection of human skeletal remains and artifacts recovered from Windover Pond represent among the largest finds of each type from the Archaic Period. Windover is important to worldwide archaeology because of the preserved brain tissue found there as well as the extant textiles and grave goods.

Site

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Description

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The Windover site (archaeological site number 8BR46) is a small freshwater pond covering about 1⁄4 acre (0.10 ha) in Brevard County, Florida, about 5 miles (8 km) from Cape Canaveral and adjacent to the Atlantic Coastal Ridge. The pond has held water continuously for the last 10,000 years. During the Middle Archaic period, sea level was considerably lower than it is today, and the pond lay above the local water table. It was fed only by rainfall and runoff from the surrounding landscape and contained a thin layer of water over a shallow layer of peat.[3]

As sea levels rose over thousands of years, the local water table also rose, and the pond gradually became fed by groundwater as well as rainfall. By 1984, when archaeologists began excavating the site, the pond contained five distinct layers of peat. In the center of the pond, the peat was covered by about 6 feet (1.8 m) of water.[3] The top layer of peat, Zone 1, labeled Black Peat, consists of a dark brown to black herbaceous marsh peat over a dark brown to brown hardwood swamp peat. Zone 2, labeled Red/Brown Peat, where the burials were found, is a reddish-brown mixed hardwood swamp peat. Lower zones in the pond include the Rubber Peat, a layer of gyttja (decayed peat), and the Water Lily Peat, a peat derived from Nymphaea plants, with sub-zones consisting of Nymphaea and Cyperus and of Nymphaea and Sagittaria plants. The bottom zone is a layer of peaty sand on top of quartz sand.[4] Windover Pond has a unusually neutral pH of 6.1 (other ponds in the vicinity have an average pH of 2.9), the water has high sulphur and other mineral content, and the peat is anaerobic, all of which is believed to have contributed to the preservation of the organic material found with the burials.[5]

The period in which Windover Pond was being used for burials, from about 8000 Before Present (BP) until about 7000 BP, was the peak of the Hypsithermal, a warm and dry period. The area around the pond was a dry oak woodland. The climate was similar to today, with a continental pattern in the winter and a tropical pattern in the summer, although the continental pattern may have been stronger than the tropical pattern, with less rainfall in the summer.[6]

Discovery

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Archaeological site marker

The site was discovered in 1982 when work began on removing the muck in a pond in a new housing development, Windover Farms. A backhoe operator, Steven Vanderjagt, noticed several skulls in the bucket of his backhoe. He notified his supervisor, who notified the project manager for the development, who notified the owners and the sheriff. The medical examiner determined that the burials were prehistoric.[7]

The developers, Jack Eckerd and Jim Swann, halted construction at the pond and called in archaeologists. Radiocarbon dating on two bones excavated from the pond by the backhoe, paid for by the developers, yielded dates of 7,210 BP and 7,320 BP, establishing the importance of the find. The developers changed their overall plans in order to preserve the pond and donated $60,000 worth of pumping equipment to drain the pond for excavation.[8][9]

Excavation

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The Florida legislature appropriated funding for research at the pond for 1984, 1985, 1986 and 1987. Funding was also provided by the National Geographic Society, IBM, and the Jessie Ball duPont Fund. Excavation of the pond was conducted in 1984, 1985, and 1986, beginning in mid-August each year and continuing into December or January. One area of the pond was excavated in the 1984 season. Two additional areas were excavated in the 1985 season, and another two in the 1986 season.The work was carried out under the direction of Glen Doran and David Dickel of Florida State University.[10][11] The buried bones were 6 feet (2 m) or deeper beneath the surface of the peat at the bottom of the pond, under 3 to 10 feet (3.0 m) of water. Researchers used a network of 160 wells around the pond to lower the water table enough to permit excavation of the peat. The workers used shovels and hand tools to remove the peat until the level of the burials was reached. One of the lead archaeologists compared excavating the peat to trying to dig chocolate mousse under water. Only half of the pond was excavated, with the remainder left undisturbed for future investigation.[3][12][13]

Burials

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After the discovery that Windover Pond was a cemetery, the bones of 58 individuals were recovered from the spoil of the backhoe excavations.[14] Archaeologists uncovered more than 100 undisturbed burials with fully articulated skeletons in roughly their original anatomical positions. (While most sources state that the bones of 168 individuals were found, Hauswirth, Dickel, and Lawlor state that the remains of 177 individuals were found.[15]) Most people were buried in a flexed position on their left sides, with their heads oriented toward the west. Only three people were found in an extended position.[16][17][18]

At least some of the dead were wrapped in woven fabric before burial, often together with grave goods. The wrapped bodies were submerged beneath the water of the peat-filled pond and secured with wooden stakes driven through the wrappings to keep them in place.[19]

Archaeologists identified five or six distinct episodes of burial spread over approximately 1,000 years during the Middle Archaic period.[16][17] The burials all appear to have occurred from July to October. It is not known if the people who used the pond for burials moved to other locations during the rest of the year, or if seasonal changes in the pond made it unsuitable for burials.[20] The burials were all found in Zone 2, the Red/Brown Peat, primarily in the lower part of the zone.[21]

The preservation state of the bones varied widely. Stojanowski, Seidemann, & Doran scored 80 features on each skeletion as either present or deteriorated. The overall score for the skeletons examined was 53%, which the authors describe as "fairly well-preserved". There was no significant difference in the preservation scores between sexes, by age, or between skeletons in which brain matter was preserved and those in which it was not. There was a significant difference in preservation scores based on the weight of the bone, with the cranium and long limb bones (femur, radius, ulna, and tibia) being the best preserved, and the scapula and sternum least preserved. There was also a significant difference in the preservation of brain matter based on the condition of the cranium. Accordingly, the craniums of children, being smaller and thinner than those of adults, were less likely to contain preserved brain matter.[22]

Grave goods

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Many artifacts that were deposited with the bodies were also preserved.[23][full citation needed] Archaeologists were able to recover a total of 86 pieces of fabric from 37 graves.[23] These included seven different textile weaves, which appeared to have been used for clothing, bags, matting, and possibly blankets and ponchos.[23][full citation needed] Numerous other artifacts, such as atlatls and projectile points, were also found at Windover.[24] The occupants of Windover hunted animals, fished, and gathered plants.[25] They used bottle gourds for storage, which comprise the earliest evidence for vegetable container storage discovered in North America.[24][full citation needed]

Thirty-seven of the graves contained woven fabrics which demonstrate a relatively complex weaving technique and indicate that the bodies had been wrapped for burial.[16][17][26]

Children and teenagers were buried with more grave goods than were adults, indicating the high value placed on children.[27]

There is a gender disparity in the distribution of some grave goods. Artifacts found only in the graves of adult males include perforators or punches made from antlers, atlatl components, a bone needle, gouges or burnishers made from the ulnas of deer, hollow-point awls, stone projectile points, gravers or burnishers made from mammal teeth, and shark-tooth drills. Artifacts found in the graves of adult females and children, but not adult males, include barbed antler projectile points, bird-bone tubes, gravers or scrapers made from shark teeth, shell necklaces, and containers made of turtle shell. Hamlin suggests that the antler projectile points were used to hunt small mammals, reptiles and fish, while stone projectile points and atlatls were used for hunting large mammals, that the hollow-point awls were used to make and mend nets, and that the bird-bone tubes and turtle-shell containers were used for dispensing medicine.[28]

Shell beads were present, but, unlike later traditions in Florida, other shell objects were sparse. One shell that had been fashioned into a cup was found, and one shell had been worked to remove the meat of the animal. Other shells showed no signs of modification, and were found in disturbed soil, with no evidence of being grave goods. The paucity of shell artifacts at Windover Pond is consistent with other Archaic period sites in Florida.[29]

Water burials

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Windover is one of several Archaic period sites in Florida with charneln or mortuary ponds, in which bodies were buried in shallow ponds with intact peat deposits. Similar burials occurred at Little Salt Spring (in Sarasota County) 5,200 to 6,800 years ago, where brain matter also survived in a number of skulls,[30] Bay West (in Collier County) 5,940 to 6,840 years ago, and Republic Grove (in Hardee County) 5,690 to 6,470 years ago.[31] A site currently 21 feet (6.4 m) below the surface of the Gulf of Mexico near Venice, Florida, the Manasota Key Offshore site, was discovered in 2016. It has multiple burials in multiple areas. The Manasota Key site was a freshwater peat pond when the burials occurred 7,200 years ago.[32] This type of charnel or mortuary pond has been found only in southern and central Florida, and all are more than 5,000 year old.[33]

At Windover, stakes were driven into the peat through fabrics wrapped around the bodies. Similar stakes were found associated with burials at Bay West, Republic Grove, and Manasota Key Offshore. The stakes may have been used to help hold the bodies underwater. There were also water burials (although not in peat ponds) in the sinkhole at Warm Mineral Springs, dating from as much as 12,000 years ago. Robin Brown notes in connection with these underwater burials that many Native American groups have a tradition that spirits of the dead are blocked by water.[31][32] As recently as 1,500 to 2,000 years ago, bundled, defleshed bones were stored on a wooden platform set in the middle of a pond at Fort Center.[26][34][35]

Population

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The remains found included bones of males and females varying in age from infancy to about 60 years, a total of 168 individuals. The average height of adult males was 5 feet 9 inches (175 cm). Children constituted about half the remains.[36]

Of 169 burials uncovered at Windover, 65 were children, from newborn to an estimated 15 years old. The sex of the children could not be determined. Of the remaining 104, from age 16 to an individual over 70 years of age, 47 were female and 48 were male, while the sex of nine could not be determined.[37]

Ten male and ten female skeletons were tested for carbon, nitrogen and oxygen isotopes to assess diet and long-term area of residence. No significant difference between males and females was found for diet or location of residence. One male and three female skeletons were outliers in terms of carbon isotopes, indicating a difference in diet. Such a difference might be due to cultural reasons, or to differences in customary diets between the widely spaced episodes of burials during the millennium Windover Pond was used for burials.[38]

Diet

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While Windover Pond is relatively near the Atlantic Ocean (although it was farther away 7000 to 8000 years ago), the ratio of the nitrogen isotopes nitrogen-14 and nitrogen-15 in the collagen of human bones found in the pond indicate that deep-sea marine foods were absent from the diet of the Windover people. Tuross et al. note that the nitrogen-15 levels in the collagen in the Windover burials are the lowest of any population found in an archaeological site near a coast. The nitrogen isotope ratio of the collagen also indicates that terrestrial herbivores, such as white-tailed deer and rabbits, were not a major component of the diet. Analysis of the ratio of the carbon isotopes carbon-12 and carbon-13 in the collagen of the human bones found in the pond indicate a diet that included animals that browsed on grass, and particularly relied on riverine resources, such as ducks, turtles, and catfish.[39]

Gut contents were found with many of the burials. The skeleton of a 70-some year old woman had a cluster of 3,324 seeds near the sacrum, mostly from elderberries, but including wild grapes and prickly pear fruit. Other edible plants, primarily in the form of seeds from fleshy fruits, were found. Three plants found associated with skeletons but not otherwise present in the environment were hackberry, black gum, and cabbage palm.[40]

Health

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Seventy-five skeletons (32 females and 43 males) from Windover Pond were assessed for indicators of health and compared to the Western Hemisphere Health Index, a database of 12,520 skeletons from 218 archaeological sites in the Americas. Indigenous peoples of the Americas account for 80% of the undividuals in the database, and 60% of the Indigenous individuals are from sites in North America. The index assesses skeletons for length of life and quality of life. Males from Windover Pond had more person-years (6,675) than females (4,716) but that may have been biased by the presence of a third more more males than females in the dataset. Quality of life assessment is based on seven indicators: stature and robusticity, infection, dental health, enamel hypoplasias (underdevelopment of the teeth), trauma, degenerative joint disease, and porotic hyperostosis/cribra orbitalia (lesions in the cranium and orbital bone, likely caused by anemia or dietary deficiencies).[41] The mean/median height was 164 centimetres (65 in) in males and 150 centimetres (59 in) in females. The taller height of males may have been the result of better access to food in childhood, resulting in less incidence of anemia and infectious disease.[38]

Degenerative joint disease

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Occurrence of degenerative joint disease by joint and gender
Joint(s)FemaleMale
Shoulder/Elbow40%27%
Hip/Knee14%27%
Cervical vertebrae28%39%
Thoracic vertebrae31%30%
Lumbar vertebrae28%44%

Many of the skeletons found in Windover Pond showed evidence of degenerative joint disease, a type of osteoarthritis. An evaluation of 75 of the skeletons (32 females and 43 males) from Windover Pond showed a lower incidence rate of degenerative joint disease than did the more than 12,000 skeletons recorded in the Western Hemisphere Health Index. Patterns of occurrence of degenerative joint disease in the Windover Pond skeletons differed between males and females, as indicated in the adjoining table. Two older females, but no males, had degenerative joint disease of the wrist. One of those females also had degenerative joint disease of the hand.[42]

Rachel Wentz attributes the higher incidence of degenerative joint disease of the shoulder and elbow in females to stress arising from preparing food and processing palm fiber for use in textiles, and the higher incidence of degenerative joint disease of the lumbar vertebrae in males to the stress of processing hides or from carrying heavy loads, such as carrying large animals killed in hunts or when moving between seasonal habitation sites.[43] Wentz et al. call the low rate of degenerative joint disease in the wrists and hands "curious" compared to the rate of degenerative joint disease in shoulders and elbows, and attribute the higher rate of degenerative joint disease of the hips and knees in male skeletons to increased walking engaged in hunting.[38]

Teeth

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Teeth in the skeletons were worn down early in life, presumably from sand in the food.[44] Males and females show similar rates of dental hypoplasia (incomplete development of teeth), suggesting that males and females had similar nutritional and health conditions in childhood. Males had fewer cavities (4.5% of teeth) than females (6.9% of teeth), but males had more abcesses, (4.3% of tooth sockets) than females (3.2% of tooth sockets). Males had lost 10.5% of their teeth before death, while females had lost 7.9% of their teeth.[38]

Trauma

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Skeletons from Windover Pond show a significantly lower incidence of traumatic injury than the average in the Western Hemisphere Health Index. Male skeletons from Windover Pond were slightly more likely to show traumatic injury than were female skeletons. The majority of the injuries appear to have been accidental. The most common injury observed in Windover Pond skeletons was a fracture of the ulna. Females were slightly more likely to suffer arm injuries than males, but had no fractures of the face or skull. Females were more likely to suffer significant trauma to their hands, which might be a result of work processing food or hides.[38]

One male had a fracture to the right eye orbit and a broken ulna, both of which had healed before he died. Another male had a sharpened antler point embedded in the pelvis. Five other male skulls had depression fractures, and several skeletons (males, females, and children) had broken ulnas, which might be parry wounds from fending off an attack. Those injuries have been ascribed to interpersonal conflict.[45] Wentz et al., however, state that of the Windover Pond skeletons that they assessed, none "exhibited fracture patterns indicative of interpersonal conflict, such as multiple injuries in combination with fractures of the face or head", and that "none of the individuals displayed patterned injuries suggesting intentional injury".[38]

Spina bifida

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Evidence of spina bifida was found in five out of 24 sacra examined. The vertebral defects were below the sacrum (in the coccyx) in four of the specimens, and were likely to have not produced any symptons. The fifth sacrum, from a 14 to 16 year-old male, had an aperture (opening) in the vertebrae exposing the spinal cord from the third lumbar vertebrae to the second sacral vertebrae (spina bifida aperta). Asymmetrical development of the neutral arches of the lumbar vertebrae produced a scoliotic bend.[46]

The right tibia and fibula of the sub-adult male had suffered from infections, and the right tibia was infected at the time of death (The left leg bones were missing, so it is not known if they had been infected). About one-quarter of the lower end of the tibia had been lost and the bone had at least partially healed and been remodeled, a process that may have taken up to two years. The appearance of the bones suggests that the bone infections were due to infections and necrosis in the soft tissues of the leg.[47]

As his spinal condition almost certainly meant the boy was paralyzed below the waist, this find was important for assessing the society's commitment to ensuring his survival for 15 years in a hunter-gatherer community.[48][27]

Other factors

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Female skeletons showed higher rates of cribra orbitalia (porosity of the orbital roof), porotic hyperostosis (porosity of the cranial vault), and infection of the tibia. Occurrence of infections elsewhere on the skeleton was about the same for both sexes. The higher rates of the named conditions are attributed to females enduring more periods of biological stress than males.[38]

Preserved brain tissue

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In late 1984, archaeologists discovered that brain tissue had survived in many of the skulls. Lumps of greasy, brownish material were found in several skulls when they were opened for examination. Suspecting that this was brain tissue, the researchers sent the intact skulls for X-ray, CAT scans, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), which showed recognizable brain structures. In addition, cell structures were seen under a microscope. At least 90 of the recovered bodies had brain tissue that survived, due to the preservative effects of the peat. The state of preservation of the brain tissues allowed a determination that the bodies were buried in the peat within 24 to 48 hours after death. This preservation allowed researchers to sequence DNA from the brains.[49][17]

Preservation factors

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Traces of human DNA were found on fragments of skulls (only about half of the skulls recovered from the pond were intact). All of the intact skulls contained preserved brain tissue. Several conditions of the burials in Windover pond contributed to the preservation of the brain tissue and DNA. The brain tissue preserved in intact skulls at Windover Pond had produced adipocere (grave wax), which is formed when fatty tissue in a body is subject to hydrolysis in the absence of oxygen. The production of adipocere requires fatty tissue, water, electrolytes (which may come from body fluids), and for putrifaction to have started.[50]

The water in the pond is very hard (with total dissolved solids of 1,447 mg/l compared to 170.3 mg/l in a neighboring pond, and a total hardness of 716 mg/l compared to 29 mg/l in the neighboring pond). The peat becomes anaerobic just a few cm below top. The pH of the water in the pond is near neutral (6.1–6.9). Peat bogs are typically acidic, and non-neutral pH tends to degrade DNA. The presence of a layer of snail shells in the pond below the layer in which burials occurred or the presence of nearby limestone formations may be the source of a level of carbonates in the water that are sufficient to buffer the pH. The combination of conditions in Windover Pond inhibited the growth of bacteria and the depurination, deamination, and oxidation of DNA.[51]

Genetic analysis

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DNA preserved in the brain tissue provided information about some of the people buried at Windover. The remains were approximately 7,000 to 8,000 years old.[52][page needed][53]

A study published in 1991 examined nuclear DNA from one individual. Researchers identified parts of six genes, including five belonging to the human leukocyte antigen gene family, which plays a role in the immune system. The recovered sequences allowed a tentative identification of that individual's HLA-A and HLA-B type.[54][page needed][55]

By 1994, nuclear and mitochondrial DNA had been examined from multiple individuals whose burials spanned nearly the entire period during which the pond was used as a cemetery. Mitochondrial DNA is inherited through the maternal line. Both nuclear and mitochondrial genetic types persisted throughout the burial sequence, leading the researchers to conclude that the people buried at Windover could be treated as a single population.[56][57][page needed]

Some mitochondrial types found at Windover were clearly related to types found among living Indigenous peoples of the Americas. Others were more distantly related and may have reflected different genetic origins, although the researchers stated that more complete sequencing was needed before the issue could be resolved.[58][page needed]

The studies were conducted during the early development of ancient DNA analysis and examined selected genes and short sections of DNA rather than complete genomes. The recovery of genetic material from the preserved tissue showed that human DNA could survive for thousands of years in a waterlogged archaeological site.[52][page needed][54][page needed][58][page needed]

Significance

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Windover Pond is one of a number of sites in Florida excavated since 1970 that have led to a major reassessment of the Archaic period in Florida. Jerald T. Milanich states that Windover has provided "unprecedented and dramatic" information about the early Archaic people in Florida, and that the Windover site may be "one of the most significant archaeological sites ever excavated."[59] Barbara Purdy has described Windover as unique and of "national and international significance",[60] and "the only site in the Americas that supplied detailed information about certain cultural practices, artifacts, and human populations dating to the Early Archaic."[61] Hauswirth, Dickel, and Lawlor stated that, as of 1994, Windover was "the most extensively characterized wet site with regard to ancient human DNA".[53] The site was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1987 in recognition of this significance.[1]

References

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  1. 1 2 3 "Windover Archeological Site". National Historic Landmark summary listing. National Park Service. Archived from the original on May 2, 2009. Retrieved June 21, 2008.
  2. 1 2 "National Register Information System". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. July 9, 2010.
  3. 1 2 3 Milanich 1994, p. 72.
  4. ↑ Stojanowski, Seidemann & Doran 2002, p. 17.
  5. ↑ Stojanowski, Seidemann & Doran 2002, pp. 17–18.
  6. ↑ Tuross et al. 1994, pp. 292–293.
  7. ↑ Doran 2002b, p. 4.
  8. ↑ Brown 1994, pp. 19–20.
  9. ↑ Milanich 1994, p. 70.
  10. ↑ Doran 2002a, pp. xviii–xix.
  11. ↑ Doran 2002b, pp. 4, 7 (map).
  12. ↑ Brown 1994, pp. 20–21.
  13. ↑ Milanich 1998, p. 16.
  14. ↑ Stojanowski, Seidemann & Doran 2002, p. 16.
  15. ↑ Hauswirth, Dickel & Lawlor 1994, p. 105.
  16. 1 2 3 Brown 1994, p. 23.
  17. 1 2 3 4 Milanich 1994, pp. 72–73.
  18. ↑ "America's Bog People". NOVA. PBS. Retrieved August 5, 2026.
  19. ↑ Drake 2021.
  20. ↑ Tuross et al. 1994, pp. 297–299.
  21. ↑ Stojanowski, Seidemann & Doran 2002, p. 18.
  22. ↑ Stojanowski, Seidemann & Doran 2002, pp. 17, 20–22.
  23. 1 2 3 Humphrey et al. 1990
  24. 1 2 Doran, Dickel & Newsom 1990
  25. ↑ Tuross et al. 1994.
  26. 1 2 Cassanello & Ford 2012.
  27. 1 2 Milanich 1994, p. 75.
  28. ↑ Hamlin 2001, pp. 130–132.
  29. ↑ Doran 2002b, p. 11.
  30. ↑ Purdy 2008, p. 88.
  31. 1 2 Brown 1994, p. 149.
  32. 1 2 "Manasota Key Offshore". Florida Division of Historical Resources. Retrieved August 3, 2026.
  33. ↑ Doran 2002b, p. 2.
  34. ↑ McGoun 1993, p. 81.
  35. ↑ Milanich 1994, pp. 80–82.
  36. ↑ Brotemarkle 2017, pp. 4–5.
  37. ↑ Hamlin 2001, p. 122.
  38. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Wentz et al. 2006, Results.
  39. ↑ Tuross et al. 1994, pp. 293, 295.
  40. ↑ Tuross et al. 1994, p. 296.
  41. ↑ Wentz et al. 2006, Materials and Methods.
  42. ↑ Wentz 2010, pp. 7–8.
  43. ↑ Wentz 2010, pp. 8–9.
  44. ↑ Brown 1994, p. 24.
  45. ↑ Richardson, Violence.
  46. ↑ Dickel & Doran 1989, pp. 326–327.
  47. ↑ Dickel & Doran 1989, p. 329.
  48. ↑ Brown 1994, p. 25.
  49. ↑ Brown 1994, pp. 22, 25.
  50. ↑ Hauswirth, Dickel & Lawlor 1994, pp. 105, 118.
  51. ↑ Hauswirth, Dickel & Lawlor 1994, pp. 105–106, 118–119.
  52. 1 2 Doran et al. 1986.
  53. 1 2 Hauswirth, Dickel & Lawlor 1994, p. 104.
  54. 1 2 Lawlor et al. 1991.
  55. ↑ Hauswirth, Dickel & Lawlor 1994, pp. 112–114.
  56. ↑ Hauswirth, Dickel & Lawlor 1994, pp. 115, 117.
  57. ↑ Hauswirth et al. 1994.
  58. 1 2 Hauswirth, Dickel & Lawlor 1994.
  59. ↑ Milanich 1994, pp. 26, 61, 70.
  60. ↑ Purdy 1991, p. 226.
  61. ↑ Purdy 1996, p. 19.

Bibliography

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